José Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses

FIRST CHAPTERS

I  THE COMING OF THE MASSES

II  THE RISE OF THE HISTORIC LEVEL

III THE HEIGHT OF THE TIMES

IV THE INCREASE OF LIFE

V A STATISTICAL FACT

VI THE DISSECTION OF THE MASS-MAN BEGINS

VII NOBLE LIFE AND COMMON LIFE, OR EFFORT AND INERTIA

VIII THE MASSES INTERVENE IN EVERYTHING, AND WHY THEIR INTERVENTION IS SOLELY BY VIOLENCE

IX THE PRIMITIVE AND THE TECHNICAL

X PRIMITIVISM AND HISTORY

XI THE SELF-SATISFIED AGE

CHAPTER XII - THE BARBARISM OF “SPECIALISATION”

The specialization of science opened way to the mass-man into science itself. The scientist needs not be someone cultured anymore. Contemporary scientists behave like mass-man (ignorant) except within his field of specialization.

From times to times, there needs to be someone to unite the scattered pieces of knowledge into a new paradigm. Once it was Newton, then Einstein. Each time is much harder due to so many specializations. Einstein had to be learnt of Kant to liberate his mind enough. This is a moviment contraty to specialization, it's the learning of all relevant specialities to see the big picture - which is seen by no one anymore.

Ortega's hypothesis: average or mediocre scientists contribute substantially to the advancement of science.

CHAPTER XIII THE GREATEST DANGER, THE STATE

Two kinds of man: mass-man and superior man. Superior man finds higher authority, a principle, by himself. The mass-man receives higher authority from his superiors. 

Revolt of the Masses: the mass-man wants to go against its destiny, wants to act by himself without having found the higher authority (the means) to do so.

Mass-man only knows to act through violence. He lynches (punishes by killing without a trial). He uses his power to crush the superior minorities. With mass-man in power, violence triumphs.

State is a fine creation of civilization, but mass-man doesn't see it as such. He doesn't know it vanishs into thin air. Without connecting the State to its true causes, the mass-man thinks it is his own, it belongs to him. He takes it for granted.

Danger: spontaneous action of society (seeds of innovation in society) will be crushed by violence and man will have to live for the State only. This was what caused the Roman Empire to decline. It is not sustainable.

CHAPTER XIV WHO RULES THE WORLD?

Europe (=England, France and German) now is not sure whether it rules the world anymore. The rest of the world eventually feels the same. This feeling made some countries feel master of themselves and brought "nationalisms".

Nationalisms bring conflict and violence. However, rule is based on public opinion (the myth of the nation). Violence is not enough to maintain a State, people have to believe and follow the ruler as authority.

State is not made ready, but built and supported.

Mass-man says the standards of Europe are bankrupt, but can't replace it. Mass-man has nothing to do anymore (the nation-myth is weak, the destiny isn't clear). Commanding is giving people what to do. People will soon cry for something/someone to command. Example of such despair: Marxism (which has industrial capitalism as context) triumphed in Russia, a place with no industry. 

The insecurity of "who the ruler is" is enough to be suspicious about and disregard the morality. Human life needs to be either glorious or humble. Either rule or obey to have mental health. "Obey" here is not submission, meaning it there needs to be respect for the ruler (his right to rule be recognized). Otherwise, there would be degradation.

Citizens of German, France and England lost respect for ther States. Adds to the feeling of decandence in Europe the comparison between products in America of higher quality (like cars), only because the market is much bigger. A bigger and less diverse market in Europe would bring similar results, but people don't see it, they feel decadence. 

In Ancient World, City-States were created to oppose the country life. Ceasar glimpsed a new kind of State, unheard of at the time: bringing together peoples of different places, languages, races to form a State not based on these characteristics. He was a genius to "transcend" the City-State. He was assassinated. Some similar trancendency is needed today, from modern nations to something beyound. The author seems to think that the decadence of Roman Empire was due to the people living only for the bureaucratic State, not being able to germiate new ideas (seeds) because of the destruction of minorities. Today would be something alike. The author thinks a plan to transcend this is the unification of Europe. Such a plan would make people feel a future again. There needs to be cultured people to proceed with this thought, though. (As Caesar did in the past, brilliantly).

Moviments to create a nation:

1. (+inclusive) fusion of peoples alike

2. (+exclusive) nationalism, creation of enemies. After conflicts, the enemies become more like each other.

3. (+inclusive) join forces of old enemies to face new enemies, more distante.

Author thinks we need to do step 3, however, for lack of means (?), only nationalisms are being created recently, which are exactly what we don't need in Europe (it excludes and acts through violence, not creating nation-myths).

CHAPTER XV - WE ARRIVE AT THE REAL QUESTION

Europe has been left without a moral code. Amorality doesn't exists, what is called today amorality is actually immorality, since it is againt any norm, to any morality. What are the radical defects from which modern European culture suffers? For it is evident that in the long run the form of humanity dominant at the present day has its origin in these defects.