Monday, March 15, 2021

Aristophanes, Lysistrata


 

Lysistrata talks to Calonice saying that the women of Greece should end the war.

What can we do? Asks Calonice.

Lysistrata has called other women for a meeting.

Myrrhine arrives late.

Lysistrata persuades the women to give up sex in order to have peace and they make a oath.

She reveals the old women are capturing the Acropolis, where the city treasure is stored.

The old men go to the Acropolis with fire to burn the old women, but the old woman were prepared with jugs of water and wet them all.

The young women and old woman manage to stop the men at the Acropolis. 

The men ask for the reason they are doing this.

Lysistrata says they are blocking the money so they won't have anymore to pay for the war.

Discussion between men and women.

One by one, women start to create reasons to go home and "rub the flax", etc. Lysistrata says they shouldn't go. 

Some even pretended to be pregnant about to give birth.

One husband come and is teased by his wife and has no sex.

Ambassadors of Athens and Sparta come to make a deal, all "hard on".

The Athenians and Spartans agree with each other and peace is made.

Sunday, September 13, 2020

Aristophanes, The Clouds

 Dramatis Personae

  • Strepsiades, main character. 
  • Pheidippides, Strepsiades's son.
  • Socrates, teacher
  • Student, student of Socrates.
  • Xanthias, Strepsiades's slave.
  • Chorus of Clouds
  • The better argument
  • The worse argument
  • Pasias
  • Witness
  • Amysias

Plot

  • Strepsiades is worried about all his debts
    • Debts related to horses for his Pheidippides, his son
  • Strepsiades plans to make his son learn from Socrates the ways of winning any argument, just or unjust.
    • That will make him get rid of all his debts.
  • After Pheidippides' refusal to learn from Socrates, Strepsiades goes himself to the Thinkery.
    • He learns many useless or absurd things, including that the traditional gods don't exist, but only three: the Clouds, Chaos and the Tongue.
    • ultimately Socrates says he isn't a good student and wants him to bring his son for instruction (looking for some money)
  • Pheidippides goes to the Thinkery and learns.
  • Pasias comes with a witness for his money and Strepsiades says he won't pay.
  • Amysias comes after his money and Strepsiades says he won't pay.
  • Instead of helping Strepsiades, Pheidippides hits him and makes an argument for hitting older people.
  • Pheidippides regrets everything he did and burns the Thinkery.

Thursday, September 10, 2020

Karl Marx e Friedrich Engels, Manifesto Comunista

I - Análise da estrutura do livro

Classificação

  • Livro de conhecimento / Filosófico / Prático (Manifesto)
  • Publicado em 1848 na Europa.

Unidade do livro

Este livro é sobre a insustentabilidade da ordem social atual com sua relação de propriedade e como esta deve ser superada pelo comunismo. 

O livro defende que esta ordem, que tem como classe dominante a burguesia, está em crise (tal como as relações de propriedades feudais estavam); que união do proletariado com política é necessária; que uma revolução com uso de violência é a única saída da crise e que os atores dessa revolução são o proletariado (classe oprimida atual). Além disso, mostra em linhas gerais o que deve ser implementado nos países.

Partes principais

  1. Burguesia criou condições revolucionárias
    1. O surgimento das classes burguesia moderna e proletariado.
    2. Crise nas relações de propriedade da burguesia moderna
    3. Burguesia criou contexto revolucionário
  2. Estado comunista a favor do proletariado
    1. Resposta à objeções da burguesia
    2. Linhas gerais de como transformar um estado em estado comunista
  3. Explicação de o por quê de a literatura comunista ou socialista anterior ser inadequada
  4. Convite à ação
    1. Alemanha como contexto propício

Problemas abordados

  1. Como resolver a situação subhumana que o proletariado está cada vez mais sendo submetido?
  2. Como alterar as relações de propriedade em favor do proletariado?

II - Interpretação do texto

Principais proposições e argumentos

  • Desenvolvimento da burguesia e do proletariado
    • A burguesia feudal se transformou na burguesia moderna pelos novos mercados trazidos pelo descobrimento das Américas, mercado Índia/China e novos meios de produção descobertos (avanço da ciência).
      • As relações de propriedades feudais não mais cotiam os novos meios de produção, então foram despedaçados.
      • Tudo passou a ser visto em relação ao dinheiro (capital)
    • Todos mais conectados e consequentemente:
      • interdependência em vez de autosuficiência das nações.
      • homogeneização do pensamento dos indivíduos
      • essa homogeneização desumaniza o trabalhador com seu trabalho fazendo-o executar senão operações super-especializadas (como uma máquina)
      • mais avanço das máquinas -> mais especialização do trabalho -> mais enfadonho o mesmo -> menos habilidades necessárias para executá-lo -> mais pessoas capazes de fazê-lo -> menores salários.
  • Crise atual
    • As relações de propriedade burguesas modernas não são mais adequadas
      • A burguesia gera mais riqueza do que consegue conter (vide queima de superprodução).
      • Assim como a relação de propriedade feudal foram despedaçados, pelos mesmos motivos as relações de propriedades burguesas devem ser destruídas.
    • A supremacia da burguesia não se sustenta mais
      • Criou o proletariado revolucionário
        • A supremacia depende de trabalho assalariado, que depende de associação de trabalhadores, que são condição para revolução.
      • Inevitável revolução
        • Existe a associação de trabalhadores e a burguesia não consegue mais mantê-los nem como nível de escravo (ou servo medieval).
  • A nova ordem social deve ser revolucionária e deve ser em favor do atual proletariado
    • Socialismos propostos anteriormente ou são reacionários ou são útopicos ou não são no interesse do proletariado
    • Logo, são inadequados e um novo surge: o comunismo.
  • A nova ordem social deve ser implementada inevitavelmente com violência e o proletariado dominante deve sê-lo apenas durante transição. Após, o poder político deve ser destruído para não haver mais classes.

Resumo do livro

1. BURGUESIA E PROLETARIADO

1.1. Luta de classes

História da sociedade é a história da luta de classes.

Exemplo medieval: nobreza (depotismo feudal, classe dominante) e burguesia (classe dominada).

Exemplo mundo moderno: burguesia (classe dominante) e proletariado (dominada).

1.2. História do desenvolvimento da burguesia moderna

O fundamento da sociedade são os meios de produção.

A descoberta da América, o mercado da Índia e China e o comércio colonial trouxeram novos mercados que deram um impulso ao comércio e indústria. A procura de mercadorias de forma nunca vista. 

Resultados:

1. Revolução nos meios de produção da sociedade feudal (que estava em decomposição). 

2. Burguesia passa a ser classe dominante, ganhando soberania política exclusiva no Estado moderno.

  • consequentemente, tudo passou a ser visto em torno de sua relação com o capital.

3. Consequentemente, tudo passou a ser por sua relação com o capital:

  • valor pessoal como valor de troca.
  • foram convertidos em assalariados os médicos, sacerdotes, advogados, poetas e cientistas.
  • reduziu a família a uma relação de dinheiro.

4. Única liberdade passou a ser o "livre mercado". 

5. Os países deixaram de ser autosuficientes

  • As necessidades velhas eram satisfeitas no próprio país.
  • As novas necessidades são atendidas por produtos que vem de terras distantes.

6. As pessoas deixaram gradativamente de pensar de maneira tão diferente

  • As criações intelectuais têm mais em comum, as nacionalidades menos distintas.
  • [Extrínsico] José Ortega refere-se a este fenômeno como a criação do homem-massa.
  • Surge uma literatura mundial

7. O campo ficou dependente da cidade, os países menos desenvolvidos dos mais desenvolvidos.

1.3. Crise na burguesia moderna

Assim como houve crise na sociedade feudal, há crise na burguesia moderna.

As relações de produção e troca feudais (organização de agricultura e indústria; relação de propriedade) entravavam as novas forças produtivas. A produção não conseguia escorrer como necessário. As relações feudais foram então destruídas.

As relações burguesas feudais hoje também estão entravando os meios produtivos. Há mais produção do que as relações dão conta. A superprodução prova isso. 

Atualmente, estão lidando com a superprodução de duas maneiras: 

  • queimando o excesso de produção
  • encontrando novos mercados consumidores

No entanto, nenhuma das duas está resolvendo o problema, somente adiando. E quando vier novamente, virá mais arrasador. 

As condições da sociedade burguesa são muito apertadas para deter a riqueza gerada por elas. Novas relações de propriedade são necessárias. As relações burguesas devem ser destruídas.

[Extrínsico] Já que não vivemos num mundo comunista, em que relações de propriedade vivo? Em que diferem das relações do século 19, quando Marx escreveu Manifesto Comunista (1848).

1.4. Desenvolvimento do proletariado

O desenvolvimento da burguesia criou o seu oposto, o proletariado (os operários). 

Conflitos do proletariado:

  • proletariado é um commodity (produto)
  • virou um pedaço de uma máquina pela divisão de trabalho extrema, sem "charme" de trabalho
  • à medida que aumenta o caráter enfadonho do trabalho, decrescem os salários.
  • são escravos do burguês, da máquina do mestre...
  • cada vez mais se exige menos habilidades do trabalhador
    • [Extrínsico] José Ortega diria que isso ocorreu não somente para operários, mas para quase todas as profissões, incluindo cientistas.
  •  mulheres e crianças trabalhando de forma indiscriminada (menos força necessária com desenvolvimento das máquinas).

No desenvolvimento do proletariado, o mesmo começa mais submisso e se chega à revolta.

  • fase inicial: cria-se antagonizada com a burguesia, inicia-se sua luta.
  • fase em que não enxergam as condições burguesas de produção, por isso alvejam os instrumentos de produção (quebrando máquinas por exemplo)
  • fase onde proletariado ainda está disperso e não unido
    • são manipulados pela burguesia, lutam contra os inimigos da burguesia, ou seja, inimigos de seus inimigos.
  • fase onde o avanço da indústria torna o proletariado mais parecido e ele se concentra mais
  • fase em que a consciência da existência das duas classes proletariado e burguesia em conflito aumenta.

Luta de classes = luta políticas

1.5. Momento decisivo para revolução

A burguesia não é capaz de continuar desempenhando papel de classe dominante, pois não está conseguindo sustentar o proletariado nem como equivalente de escravo ou de servo medieval; não consegue mais assegurar a sobrevivência deste. 

A burguesia, quando revolucionária, fortificou seus modos de apropriação. O proletariado não tem tais modos para fortificar, então sua missão é destruir todas as seguranças anteriores de propriedade privada.

Todos os movimentos anteriores foram nos interesses da minoria, este movimento do proletariado é da grande maioria no interessa da grande maioria.

A supremacia da burguesia depende de capital, que depende de trabalho assalariado, que depende de concorrência entre trabalhadores. O avanço da indústria traz a associação dos trabalhadores, devido justamente a sua concorrência trazida pela burguesia, e a associação dos trabalhadores é a condição para revolução. Portanto, a decadência da burguesia pelo proletariado é inevitável. A burguesia produz, sobretudo, seus próprios coveiros.

2. Proletários e comunistas

2.1. Introdução

Autor iguala interesses do comunismo com os do proletariado e resume esta a uma fórmula: abolição da propriedade privada.

2.2. Abolição da propriedade privada

Quase todas as propriedades atuais foram adquiridas com uso do capital, ou seja, com uso de uma força social, esforço combinado de todos. Portanto, a propriedade dita particular não o é, é social, é coletiva.

2.3. Respostas às objeções da burguesia

O autor diz que em geral, as objeções da burguesia definem como "cultura" a sua própria, "indivíduo" o proprietário burguês e assim por diante, mostrando que essas objeções são extremamente parciais. A cultura, religião e costumes prezados pela burguesia representam exatamente as amarras do proletariado. Essa cultura é um adestramento que transforma a maioria dos homens (mas não os burgueses) em máquinas.

Os burgueses criticam a desapropriação da propriedade privada, Marx fala que as pessoas não teram anuladas suas partes nos produtos sociais. 

As críticas da ordem de ideias, filosofia e religião, Marx diz que a produção intelectual se transforma à medida que produção material se transforma. 

2.4. Como será o estado comunista

Tomada do poder

1. O proletariado usará sua supremacia política para arrancar o capital da burguesia.

2. Estatizará todos os intrumentos de produção (indústrias, maquinário). O Estado é o proletariado dominante.

3. Usará, a principio, violação despótica do direito de propriedade e das relações de produção burguesas.

Em seguida, aplicará uma série de medidas, a depender de país em país, mas que em geral para os países mais  desenvolvidos são:

1. Expropriação da propriedade latifundiária e emprego da renda da terra em proveito do Estado.

2. Imposto fortemente progressivo.

3. Abolição do direito de herança.

4. Confiscação da propriedade de todas os emigrados e sediciosos.

5. Centralização do crédito nas mãos do Estado por

meio de um banco nacional com capital do Estado e com o monopólio exclusivo.

6. Centralização, nas mãos do Estado, de todos os meios de transporte.

7. Multiplicação das fábricas e dos instrumentos de produção pertencentes ao Estado, arroteamento das terras incultas e melhoramento das terras cultivadas, segundo um plano geral.

8. Trabalho obrigatório para todos, organização de exércitos industriais, particularmente para a

agricultura.

9. Combinação do trabalho agrícola e industrial, medidas tendentes a fazer desaparecer gradualmente a distinção entre a cidade e o campo

10. Educação pública e gratuita de todas as crianças, abolição do trabalho das crianças nas fábricas, tal

como é praticado hoje. Combinação da educação com a produção material, etc.

Após as reformas e após os antagonismos de classe desaparecerem, o proletariado que se tornou em classe dominante forçosamente, deve destruir as condições das classes e seu poder político, pois o poder político é o poder organizado de uma classe em opressão de outra.

  - [Extrínsico] Se o proletariado organizado em classe dominante é o Estado, como seria o Estado após a abolição das relações de classe?

"Em lugar da antiga sociedade burguesa, com suas classes e antagonismos de classe, surge uma

associação onde o livre desenvolvimento de cada um é a condição do livre desenvolvimento de todos."

 - [Extrínsico] Parece utópico para mim.

3. Literatura socialista e comunista

3.1. Socialismo feudal e clérigo - reações da aristocracia e clero frente à nova classe burguesa

Quando a aristocracia feudal não podia mais ter lutas políticas sérias, tiveram lutas literárias, através de escrita de livros. Nesses livros, propuseram um "feudalismo social", algo reacionário. Não foi bem aceito, as pessoas ao entrarem no movimento percebiam as intenções reacionárias. A aristocracia não percebia que seu modelo de exploração era inadequado, já não era possível, que a burguesia era algo natural na continuidade.

Esta literatura contra a burguesia ajuda na criação de um proletariado revolucionário. (Não ajudou a aristocracia reacionária). Na política prática, no entanto, eles se vendem e se juntam contra a classe trabalhadora. 

O socialismo do clero foi similar com o feudal, mesma ideia reacionária. 

Inapropriado porque: reacionário em favor da aristocracia e clero.

3.2. Socialismo Pequeno-Burguês

A antiga classe burguesa, os que não se desenvolveram no novo padrão, também estavam na disputa. Estavam entre o proletariado e a burguesia, "pequeno-burguês". Sismondi é o chefe desta literatura. 

Esta literatura tem muito mérito, mostrou de um modo irrefutável os efeitos mortíferos das máquinas e da divisão do trabalho, a concentração dos capitais e da propriedade territorial, a superprodução, as crises, a decadência inevitável dos pequenos burgueses e camponeses, a miséria do proletariado, a anarquia na produção, a clamorosa desproporção na distribuição das riquezas, a guerra industrial de extermínio entre as nações, a dissolução dos velhos costumes, das velhas relações de família, das velhas nacionalidades.

[Extrínsico] Esta literatura está muito alinhada com o próprio Manifesto Comunista

A crítica de Marx para esta literatura é ela tem duas interpretações, dependendo da qual é reacionária OU utópica, mas não revolucionária:

Interpretação 1: reacionária, porque parece querer voltar para as relações de produção e troca feudais.

Interpretação 2: utópica, porque seria favorável aos novos meios de produção, mas em conjunto com as antigas relações de propriedades, que entravam a produção e que precisam ser destruídas.

Esta proposta de socialismo desapareceu sozinha com o tempo, quando perceberam sua inconsistência.

Inapropriado porque: reacionário em favor do burguês feudal ou utópico (relação de propriedade incompatível).

3.3. Socialismo "verdadeiro" ou alemão

Os anteriores eram relativos a França e Inglaterra. Chegaram na Alemanha e fizeram grande sucesso, com as ressalvas abaixo.

Em especial a literatura francesa de socialismo chegou na Alemanha quando a burguesia por lá ainda não tinha atingido tanto poder, o feudalismo ainda estava forte. Devido a isso, os alemães interpretaram os documentos franceses de um ponto de vista muito teorico, não prático. Essa interpretação superficial fez os alemães imaginarem que eles haviam transcendido a literatura francesa, que eles não estariam apenas a favor do proletariado, mas da humanidade como um todo (um homem teórico, que não se encontra em lugar nenhum, diz Marx). 

Os alemãos espalharam essas ideias novas por lá, sendo que o contexto ainda era de uma burguesia emergente. Esse conhecimento foi bem recebido pela aristocracia alemã. Para o governo, o verdadeiro socialismo foi uma arma contra a burguesia alemã, também sendo de interesse do pequeno-burguês, que era onde se baseava a real ordem social alemã.

Autor critica esta literatura alemã como cheia de retória, sentimento e especulação. Ela propagou-se bastante na alemanha porque os pequenos-burgueses viam nela a solução para duas frentes (trazidas pela nova burguesia): a concentração do capital e a criação de um proletariado revolucionário.

Inapropriado porque: em favor do pequeno-burguês.

3.4. Socialismo conservador ou burguês

Uma parte da burguesia procura remediar os males sociais trazidos justamente pela nova burguesia com o fim de consolidar-se na sociedade. Com condições menos extremas, o elemento revolucionário não estará lá. "Querem a burguesia sem o proletariado" [Crítica: parece provocativo, pois ainda seria proletariado, mas o autor parece definir proletariado com seu elemento revolucionário casusado pela opressão.]

[Extrínsico] Não seria este justamente o meio-termo? Talvez o desejado? (a depender de como for implementado)

Nessa categoria enfileiram-se os economistas, os filantropos, os humanitários, os que se ocupam em melhorar a sorte da classe operária, os organizadores de beneficências, os protetores dos animais, etc.

Exemplo de literatura: Filosofia da Miséria (Philosophie de la misère), de Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1846). [CITATION]

[Extrínsico] Pierre-Joseph Proudhon ficou conhecido como pai do anarquismo.

Neste socialismo, todo o discurso é feito "em interesse da classe operária", no entanto, o interesse maior é da própria burguesia. "os burgueses são burgueses - no interesse da classe operária."

Inapropriado porque: não era revolucionário. Pretendia fazer conviver o proletariado e a burguesia. Exploração continua. Distração para o proletariado não perceber a exploração.

3.5. SOCIALISMO E O COMUNISMO CRÍTICO-UTÓPICOS

Foi desenvolvido muito cedo no desenvolvimento do proletariado, ainda não viam a dimensão completa. 

[Extrínsico] L'Industrie de Saint-Simon (1817).

Defendem a classe operária, porque é sofredora, não vem seu componente histórico. Seu plano deseja melhorar condições para todos, é o melhor dos planos possíveis para a melhor sociedade possível. Atacaram a sociedade em suas bases, propondo supressão da distinção entre a cidade e o campo, a abolição da família, do lucro privado e do trabalho assalariado, a proclamação da harmonia social e a transformação do Estado numa simples administração da produção. Tentam trilhar um caminho (fadado ao fracasso) pacífico, com exemplos de pequena escala. Era um plano utópico. 

Quando a luta de classes se tornou mais clara, com possibilidade de ação, os seguidores deste socialismos ainda estavam aplicando as abstrações feitas no início, agora obsoletas. Viraram reacionários. Opõem-se à ações políticas da classe operária.

Inapropriado porque: não revolucionário e utópico. 

3.6. Posição dos comunistas

Cita alinhamento político com alguns partidos em diferentes países e diz que a Alemanha tem um contexto muito favorável para a ação do proletariado. 

Para alcançar os seus objetivos, o comunismo irá derrubar a ordem social atual com violência. O proletariado não tem nada a perder, um mundo a ganhar! Uni-vos!

[Extrínsico] Perdeu algo o proletariado após as ações feitas na prática?

Timeline

  • 1755 - Revolução industrial
  • 1800 - Locomotiva a vapor.
  • 1825 - Revolta Decembrista na Rússia. 
  • 1848 - Publicação do Manifesto Comunista.
  • 1914 - Início 1º guerra mundial.
  • 1917 - Revolução Comunista Russa
  • 1914 - Fim 1º guerra mundial.
  • 1922 - União Soviética é formada.
  • 1939 - Inicío 2º guerra mundial.
  • 1939 - Fim 2º guerra mundial.
  • 1949 - Criação da Alemanha Oriental
  • 1949 - Revolução Comunista Chinesa
  • 1950 - Guerra da Coreia
  • 1953 - Revolução Cubana

III - Crítica


Monday, September 7, 2020

Plato, Apology


Type: 

Knowledge / Philosophical / Practical

Notes

  1. Socrates addresses the Athenians at the court. 
    1. Says the accusers only speak untruths and he only truths.
    2. Says he won't change his way of speak, he'll use his costumary way.
    3. Cites the tragedy "The Clouds" by Aristophanes, where he is shown in a misleading way;
    4. "Let the speaker speak truly and the judges decide justly"
  2. Defendes himself against the older accusers
    1. "Socrates is evil-doer, searches for things in earth and in heaven and makes the worst look better; and teaches it to others"
    2. Says he has nothing to do with physical speculations.
    3. Says there're many others who charge for their supposed wisdom; not him.
    4. Explains why the have the "bad fame" of wise;
      1. Chaerephon asked the Delphi oracle about who's wiser than Socrates; "No man";
      2. "If only I could find a man wiser than myself", his search starts with this;
      3. Inquiries with politicians, poets, artisans
        1. Found out the men with higher reputation knew the lesser;
        2. Politicians < Poets < Artisans (The more reputaton, the less wisdom);
        3. "I don't have their knoledge or ignorance"
        4. Puts it as obedient to the God, as a divine mission;
        5. Instead of angrey with themselves, they're angry with me;
    5. Created many enemies because of this, this is the real nature of the accusation;
      1. Accuser Meletus on behalf of poets; 
      2. Anytus; artisans and politicians; 
      3. Lycon, rhetoricians;
  3. Defendes himself againt the more recent accusers
    1. Meletus again;
    2. If am their corrupter, who is ther improver? Meletus stays silent;
    3. After pressed: "The laws", and then "the judges, the senators, etc.";
    4. Socrates: "I alone am the corrupter?"
      1. Happy they would be if they had only one corrupter and the rest of the world their improvers.
    5. "Do not the good do their nighbours good, and the bad do them evil?", "Certainly";
      1. "Does any one like to be injured?", "Certainly not";
      2. "Do I corrupt them intentionaly or unintentionaly?", "Intentionaly";
      3. "Either I do not corrupt them; or I corrupt them unintentionally";
    6. "I mean that you are a complete atheist";
      1. Socrates says this is inconsistent, how come he believes in supernaturation begins and demigods and not in gods? 
        1. Rather like believing in flute-playing but not in flute-players;
  4. About his behavior on trial;
    1. "A man good for anything should only consider what he does is right or wrong, not if he'll live or die";
      1. Nobody knows whether death is the greatest evil or greatest good;
    2. "I tell you virtue is not given by money, but from virtue comes money and every other good of man;"
    3. "Nothing will injure me, not Meletus or Anytus, a bad man can't injure a better than himself;"
      1. The evil he is doing (unjustly taking away the life of another) is greater than the injure done upon me;
    4. "You may sin againt God by condemning me, you won't easy find a successor to me;"
    5. I am like a gadfly that prevents you from sleeping; without me or other fly like me, you will stay asleep;
      1. Later on Socrates says undisturbed sleep would be better then living, then...
        1. Examined life > Undisturbed sleep (death) > Living sleep (unexamined life);
    6. "If I were in politics, I should have perished long ago and done no good to anyone;"
      1. He who will fight for the right; must have a private station and not a public one;
      2. This rejects the idea of going to public and making the transformation from there, but instead to transform from the private sphere;
      3. I have been always the same in my actions, public as well as private;
      4. "I was really too honest a man to be a politician and live" (said after condemnation)
    7. Divine signs
      1. Voice he hears since childhood which forbids but never commands;
      2. Socrates thinks he has a duty by God of cross-examining other men;
      3. Signs by oracles, visions;
    8. About not having relatives on the trial;
      1. They would appeal only to ask favour of a judge towards acquittal;
      2. Instead, one should inform and convince him;
        1. His duty is not to make a present of justice, but to give judgment;
  5. About his condemnation and gives alternative punishment
    1. Difference of 30 votes;
    2. Looking to it before its own interests
      1. I sought to persuade every man to look to himself, and seek virtue and wisdom before he looks to his private interests, 
      2. and look to the state before he looks to the interests of the state;
    3. Socrates rejects the followings possibilites (he proposes no penalty):
      1. penalty of death: not afraid of death;
      2. imprisionment: be a slave of the magistrates of the year (the Eleven);
      3. exile: where unknown people would less likely accept him as this now;
    4. Virtue is the greatest good of man;
    5. Unexamined life is not worth living;
    6. Penalty proposed:
      1. 30 minae, having Plato, Crito, Critobulus and Apollodorusas sureties;
  6. Final words and the meaning of death
    1. For having killed a wise man, though he thinks he isn't wise;
    2. Neither in war yet at law ought I or any man to use every way of escaping death;
    3. The difficulty is not to avoid death, but to avoid unrighteousness;
    4. The oracles were silent about the trial, Socrates takes that as meaning death is not evil (otherwise they would say something);
    5. Socrates thinks there is greater reason to hope that death is a good;
      1. He compares an undisturbed sleep to days of life;
      2. How many days and nights are more pleasantly than that sleep?
      3. To die is gain; eternity is a single night;
      4. But if death is a journey to another place, all the better.
        1. One could talk to ancient heros and wise figures;
        2. "I shall examine them", this without the inconvenient of dying again;
    6. Socrates asks the Athenian to punish his sons if they value riches more than virtue in the future in other to receive justice, both him and his sons;
    7. Now is the time, I to die, you to live, which is better God only knows;

Sunday, September 6, 2020

Plato, Euthyphro

First reading

1. Classification

Knowledge → Theoretical → Philosophical

2. What is the unity?

This book is an inquiry about the nature of piety / unpiety. 

3. Parts

  1. Meeting at the porch
    1. Euthyphro learns Socrates is being sued and why (By Meletus);
    2. Socrates learns about Euthyphro's suit (Against his father);
    3. Socrates says he'll have Euthyphro as master to learn from his wisdom to avoid undesired fate in the suit;
    4. Socrates questions what is piety and unpiety;
  2. Euthyphro formulates his first definition (1);
    1. Socrates raises an objection (1.1);
  3. Euthyphro formulates his second definition (2);
    1. Socrates raises an objection (2.1);
    2. Euthyphro replies objection (2) (arguing gods agree about punishing murderers);
    3. Socrates replies again (says that all men agree likewise);
    4. Socrates raises an objection (2.2);
  4. Euthyphro formulates his third definition (3);
    1. Socrates raises an objection (3.1);
  5. Euthyphro recognizes the difficulty of defining;
  6. Socrates explains what he means through an example;
  7. Euthyphro on formulates his fourth definition (4);
    1. Socrates raises an objection (4.1);
  8. Euthyphro on formulates his fifth definition (5);
    1. Socrates raises an objection (5.1);
  9. Socrates asks again, finally
    1. Euthyphro leaves inconclusive;

4. Problems

  1. What is the nature of piety / unpiety?

Second reading


Euthyphro's 5 Definitions
Socrates says, tongue-in-cheek as usual, that he's delighted to find someone who's an expert on piet—just what he needs in his present situation. So he asks Euthyphro to explain to him what piety is. Euthyphro tries to do this five times, and each time Socrates argues that the definition is inadequate.

1st Definition: Piety is what Euthyphro is doing now, namely prosecuting wrongdoers. Impiety is failing to do this.

Socrates' Objection: That's just an example of piety, not a general definition of the concept.

2nd Definition: Piety is what is loved by the gods ("dear to the gods" in some translations); impiety is what is hated by the gods.

Socrates' Objection: According to Euthyphro, the gods sometimes disagree among themselves about questions of justice. So some things are loved by some gods and hated by others. On this definition, these things will be both pious and impious, which makes no sense.

3rd Definition: Piety is what is loved by all the gods. Impiety is what all the gods hate.

Socrates' Objection: The argument Socrates uses to criticize this definition is the heart of the dialogue. His criticism is subtle but powerful. He poses this question: Do the gods love piety because it is pious, or is it pious because the gods love it?

To grasp the point of the question, consider this analogous question: Is a film funny because people laugh at it or do people laugh at it because it's funny? If we say it's funny because people laugh at it, we're saying something rather strange. We're saying that the film only has the property of being funny because certain people have a certain attitude toward it.

But Socrates argues that this gets things the wrong way round. People laugh at a film because it has a certain intrinsic property, the property of being funny. This is what makes them laugh.

Similarly, things aren't pious because the gods view them in a certain way. Rather, the gods love pious actions such as helping a stranger in need, because such actions have a certain intrinsic property, the property of being pious.

4th definition: Piety is that part of justice concerned with caring for the gods.

Socrates' Objection: The notion of care involved here is unclear. It can't be the sort of care a dog owner gives to its dog since that aims at improving the dog. But we can't improve the gods. If it's like the care an enslaved person gives his enslaver, it must aim at some definite shared goal. But Euthyphro can't say what that goal is.

5th Definition: Piety is saying and doing what is pleasing to the gods at prayer and sacrifice. 

Socrates' Objection: When pressed, this definition turns out to be just the third definition in disguise. After Socrates shows how this is so, Euthyphro says in effect, "Oh dear, is that the time? Sorry, Socrates, I have to go."

José Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses



FIRST CHAPTERS

I  THE COMING OF THE MASSES

II  THE RISE OF THE HISTORIC LEVEL

III THE HEIGHT OF THE TIMES

IV THE INCREASE OF LIFE

V A STATISTICAL FACT

VI THE DISSECTION OF THE MASS-MAN BEGINS

VII NOBLE LIFE AND COMMON LIFE, OR EFFORT AND INERTIA

VIII THE MASSES INTERVENE IN EVERYTHING, AND WHY THEIR INTERVENTION IS SOLELY BY VIOLENCE

IX THE PRIMITIVE AND THE TECHNICAL

X PRIMITIVISM AND HISTORY

XI THE SELF-SATISFIED AGE

CHAPTER XII - THE BARBARISM OF “SPECIALISATION”

The specialization of science opened way to the mass-man into science itself. The scientist needs not be someone cultured anymore. Contemporary scientists behave like mass-man (ignorant) except within his field of specialization.

From times to times, there needs to be someone to unite the scattered pieces of knowledge into a new paradigm. Once it was Newton, then Einstein. Each time is much harder due to so many specializations. Einstein had to be learnt of Kant to liberate his mind enough. This is a moviment contraty to specialization, it's the learning of all relevant specialities to see the big picture - which is seen by no one anymore.

Ortega's hypothesis: average or mediocre scientists contribute substantially to the advancement of science.

CHAPTER XIII THE GREATEST DANGER, THE STATE

Two kinds of man: mass-man and superior man. Superior man finds higher authority, a principle, by himself. The mass-man receives higher authority from his superiors. 

Revolt of the Masses: the mass-man wants to go against its destiny, wants to act by himself without having found the higher authority (the means) to do so.

Mass-man only knows to act through violence. He lynches (punishes by killing without a trial). He uses his power to crush the superior minorities. With mass-man in power, violence triumphs.

State is a fine creation of civilization, but mass-man doesn't see it as such. He doesn't know it vanishs into thin air. Without connecting the State to its true causes, the mass-man thinks it is his own, it belongs to him. He takes it for granted.

Danger: spontaneous action of society (seeds of innovation in society) will be crushed by violence and man will have to live for the State only. This was what caused the Roman Empire to decline. It is not sustainable.

CHAPTER XIV WHO RULES THE WORLD?

Europe (=England, France and German) now is not sure whether it rules the world anymore. The rest of the world eventually feels the same. This feeling made some countries feel master of themselves and brought "nationalisms".
Nationalisms bring conflict and violence. However, rule is based on public opinion (the myth of the nation). Violence is not enough to maintain a State, people have to believe and follow the ruler as authority.

State is not made ready, but built and supported.

Mass-man says the standards of Europe are bankrupt, but can't replace it. Mass-man has nothing to do anymore (the nation-myth is weak, the destiny isn't clear). Commanding is giving people what to do. People will soon cry for something/someone to command. Example of such despair: Marxism (which has industrial capitalism as context) triumphed in Russia, a place with no industry. 

The insecurity of "who the ruler is" is enough to be suspicious about and disregard the morality. Human life needs to be either glorious or humble. Either rule or obey to have mental health. "Obey" here is not submission, meaning it there needs to be respect for the ruler (his right to rule be recognized). Otherwise, there would be degradation.

Citizens of German, France and England lost respect for ther States. Adds to the feeling of decandence in Europe the comparison between products in America of higher quality (like cars), only because the market is much bigger. A bigger and less diverse market in Europe would bring similar results, but people don't see it, they feel decadence. 

In Ancient World, City-States were created to oppose the country life. Ceasar glimpsed a new kind of State, unheard of at the time: bringing together peoples of different places, languages, races to form a State not based on these characteristics. He was a genius to "transcend" the City-State. He was assassinated. Some similar trancendency is needed today, from modern nations to something beyound. The author seems to think that the decadence of Roman Empire was due to the people living only for the bureaucratic State, not being able to germiate new ideas (seeds) because of the destruction of minorities. Today would be something alike. The author thinks a plan to transcend this is the unification of Europe. Such a plan would make people feel a future again. There needs to be cultured people to proceed with this thought, though. (As Caesar did in the past, brilliantly).

Moviments to create a nation:
1. (+inclusive) fusion of peoples alike
2. (+exclusive) nationalism, creation of enemies. After conflicts, the enemies become more like each other.
3. (+inclusive) join forces of old enemies to face new enemies, more distante.

Author thinks we need to do step 3, however, for lack of means (?), only nationalisms are being created recently, which are exactly what we don't need in Europe (it excludes and acts through violence, not creating nation-myths).

CHAPTER XV - WE ARRIVE AT THE REAL QUESTION

Europe has been left without a moral code. Amorality doesn't exists, what is called today amorality is actually immorality, since it is againt any norm, to any morality. What are the radical defects from which modern European culture suffers? For it is evident that in the long run the form of humanity dominant at the present day has its origin in these defects.


Tuesday, August 25, 2020

Ten Year Reading Plan

Source: http://www.greatconversation.com/10-year-reading-plan

Here below is a list of the entire set of readings from Britannica's ten-year reading plan. Please note that Adler's 10-year suggested list of readings in Britannica's Great Books is different in edition one compared with edition two. In the list below, the sequentially numbered items WITHOUT asterisks are common to both the first edition's suggested 10-year reading schedule and the second edition's schedule. Items listed below with a single asterisk indicates readings only included in the first edition's suggested ten year reading schedule. Items listed below with double asterisk indicate readings only included in the second edition's schedule. Please refer to the list HERE as the definitive list for our group's current readings.

FIRST YEAR

1. PLATO: Apology, Euthyphro, Crito

2. ARISTOPHANES: Clouds, Lysistrata

3. PLATO: Republic [Book I-II]

4. ARISTOTLE: Ethics [Book I]

5. ARISTOTLE: Politics [Book I]

6. PLUTARCH: The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans [Lycurgus, Numa

Pompilius, Lycurgus and Numa Compared, Alexander, Caesar]

7. NEW TESTAMENT: [The Gospel According to Saint Matthew, The Acts of the

Apostles]

8. ST. AUGUSTINE: Confessions [Book I-VIII]

9. MACHIAVELLI: The Prince

10. RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel [Book I-II]

11. MONTAIGNE: Essays [Of Custom, and That We Should Not Easily Change a

Law Received; Of Pedantry; Of the Education of Children; That It Is Folly to Measure

Truth and Error by Our Own Capacity; Of Cannibals; That the Relish of Good and

Evil Depends in a Great Measure upon the Opinion We Have of Them; Upon Some

Verses of Virgil]

12. SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet

13. LOCKE: Concerning Civil Government [Second Essay]

14.ROUSSEAU: The Social Contract [Book I-II]

15. GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [Ch. 15-16]

16. The Declaration of Independence, The Constitution of the United States, The

Federalist [Numbers 1-10, 15, 31, 47, 51, 68-71]

17. SMITH: The Wealth of Nations [Introduction—Book I, Ch. 9]

18. MARX—ENGELS: Manifesto of the Communist Party

19** TOCQUEVILLE – Democracy in America [Vol 1, part II ch 6-8]

20** IBSEN – The Master Builder

21** SCHRODINGER – What is Life?



SECOND YEAR


1. HOMER: The Iliad

2. AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon, Choephoroe, Eumenides

3. SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King, Antigone

4. HERODOTUS: The History [Book I-II]

5. PLATO: Meno

6. ARISTOTLE: Poetics

7. ARISTOTLE: Ethics [Book II; Book III, Ch. 5-12; Book VI, Ch. 8-13]

8. NICOMACHUS: Introduction to Arithmetic

9. LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things [Book I-IV]

10. MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations

11. HOBBES: Leviathan [Part I]

12. MILTON: Areopagitica

13. PASCAL: Pensées [Numbers 72, 82-83, 100, 128, 131, 139, 142-143, 171, 194-

195, 219, 229, 233-234, 242, 273, 277, 282, 289, 298, 303, 320, 323, 325, 330-331,

374, 385, 392, 395-397, 409, 412-413, 416, 418, 425, 430, 434-435, 463, 491, 525-

531, 538, 543, 547, 553, 556, 564, 571, 586, 598, 607-610, 613, 619-620, 631, 640,

644, 673, 675, 684, 692-693, 737, 760, 768, 792-793]

14. PASCAL: Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle

15. SWIFT: Gulliver's Travels

16. ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality

17. KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals

18. MILL: On Liberty

19** VOLTAIRE – Candide

20** NIETZSCHE – Beyond Good and Evil

21** WHITEHEAD – Science and the Modern World [Ch I – VI]


THIRD YEAR

1. AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound

2. HERODOTUS: The History [Book VII-IX]

3. THUCYDIDES: The History of the Peloponnesian War [Book I-II, V]

4. PLATO: Statesman

5. ARISTOTLE: On Interpretation [Ch. 1-10]

6. ARISTOTLE: Politics [Book III-V]

7. EUCLID: Elements [Book I]

8. TACITUS: The Annals

9. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I-II, QQ 90-97]

10. CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida

11. SHAKESPEARE: Macbeth

12. MILTON: Paradise Lost

13. LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding [Book III, Ch. 1-3, 9-11]

14. KANT: Science of Right

15. MILL: Representative Government [Ch. 1-6]

16. LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry [Part I]

17. DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov [Part I-II]

18. FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis

19** TWAIN – Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

20** LEVI-STRAUSS – Structural Anthropology [Selections]

21** POINCARÉ – Science and Hypothesis [Part I - II]


FOURTH YEAR

1. EURIPIDES: Medea, Hippolytus, Trojan Women, The Bacchantes

2. PLATO: Republic [Book VI-VII]

3. PLATO: Theaetetus

4. ARISTOTLE: Physics [Book IV, Ch. 1-5, 10-14]

5. ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics [Book I, Ch. 1-2; Book IV; Book VI, Ch. 1; Book XI, Ch.

1-4]

6. ST. AUGUSTINE: Confessions [Book IX-XIII]

7. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I, QQ 16-17, 84-88]

8. MONTAIGNE: Apology for Raymond de Sebonde

9. GALILEO: Two New Sciences [Third Day, through Scholium of Theorem II]

10. BACON: Novum Organum [Preface, Book I]

11. DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method

12. NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy [Prefaces,

Definitions, Axioms, General Scholium]

13. LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding [Book II]

14. HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding

15. KANT: Critique of Pure Reason [Prefaces, Introduction, Transcendental

Aesthetic]

16. MELVILLE: Moby Dick

17. DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov [Part III-IV]

18. JAMES: Principles of Psychology [Ch. XV, XX]

19** CALVIN – Institutes of the Christian Religion [Book III]

20** FRAZER – The Golden Bough [Selections]

21** HEISENBERG – Physics and Philosophy [ch 1 - 6]


FIFTH YEAR

1. PLATO: Phaedo

2. ARISTOTLE: Categories

3. ARISTOTLE: On the Soul [Book II, Ch. 1-3; Book III]

4. HIPPOCRATES: The Oath; On Ancient Medicine; On Airs, Waters, and Places;

The Book of Prognostics; Of the Epidemics; The Law; On the Sacred Disease

5. GALEN: On the Natural Faculties

6. VIRGIL: The Aeneid

7. PTOLEMY: The Almagest [Book I, Ch. 1-8]

8. COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres [Introduction—Book I-

Ch. 11]

9. KEPLER: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy [Book IV, Part II, Ch. 1-2]

10. PLOTINUS: Sixth Ennead

11. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I, QQ 75-76, 78-79]

12. DANTE: The Divine Comedy [Hell]

13. HARVEY: The Motion of the Heart and Blood

14. CERVANTES: Don Quixote [Part I]

15. SPINOZA: Ethics [Part II]

16. BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge

17. KANT: Critique of Pure Reason [Transcendental Analytic]

18. DARWIN: The Origin of Species [Introduction—Ch. 6, Ch. 15]

19. TOLSTOY: War and Peace [Book I-VIII]

20. JAMES: Principles of Psychology [Ch. XXVIII]

21** DEWEY – Experience and Education

22** WADDINGTON – The Nature of Life

23** ORWELL – Animal Farm


SIXTH YEAR

1. OLD TESTAMENT [Genesis, Exodus, Deuteronomy]

2. HOMER: The Odyssey

3. PLATO: Laws [Book X]

4. ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics [Book XII]

5. TACITUS: The Histories

6. PLOTINUS: Fifth Ennead

7. ST. AUGUSTINE: The City of God [Book XV-XVIII]

8. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I, QQ 1-13]

9. DANTE: The Divine Comedy [Purgatory]

10. SHAKESPEARE: Comedy of Errors, The Taming of the Shrew, As You Like It,

Twelfth Night

11. SPINOZA: Ethics [Part I]

12. MILTON: Samson Agonistes

13. PASCAL: The Provincial Letters

14. LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding [Book IV]

15. GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [Ch. 1-5, General

Observations on the Fall of the Roman Empire in the West]

16. KANT: Critique of Pure Reason [Transcendental Dialectic]

17. HEGEL: Philosophy of History [Introduction]

18. TOLSTOY: War and Peace [Book IX-XV, Epilogues]

19** KIERKEGAARD – Fear and Trembling

20** HUIZINGA – The Waning of the Middle Ages [I - X]

21** SHAW – Saint Joan

SEVENTH YEAR

1. OLD TESTAMENT [Job, Isaiah, Amos]

2. PLATO: Symposium

3. PLATO: Philebus

4. ARISTOTLE: Ethics [Book VIII-X]

5. ARCHIMEDES: Measurement of a Circle, The Equilibrium of Planes [Book I],

The Sand-Reckoner, On Floating Bodies [Book I]

6. EPICTETUS: Discourses

7. PLOTINUS: First Ennead

8. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I-II, QQ 1-5]

9. DANTE: The Divine Comedy [Paradise]

10. RABELAIS: Gargantual and Pantagruel [Book III-IV]

11. SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus

12. GALILEO: Two New Sciences [First Day]

13. SPINOZA: Ethics [Part IV-V]

14. NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy [Book III, Rules],

Optics [Book I, Part I; Book III, Queries]

15. HUYGENS: Treatise on Light

16. KANT: Critique of Practical Reason

17. KANT: Critique of Judgment [Critique of Aesthetic Judgment]

18. MILL: Utilitarianism

19** WEBER – Essays in Sociology [Part III]

20** PROUST – Swann in Love

21** BRECHT – Mother Courage and Her Children

EIGHTH YEAR

1. ARISTOPHANES: Thesmophoriazusae, Ecclesiazusae, Plutus

2. PLATO: Gorgias

3. ARISTOTLE: Ethics [Book 

4. ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric [Book I, Ch. 1—Book II, Ch. 1; Book II, Ch. 20—Book III,

Ch. 1; Book III, Ch. 13-19]

5. ST. AUGUSTINE: On Christian Doctrine

6. HOBBES: Leviathan [Part II]

7. SHAKESPEARE: Othello, King Lear

8. BACON: Advancement of Learning [Book I, Ch. 1—Book II, Ch. 11]

9. DESCARTES: Meditations on the First Philosophy

10. SPINOZA: Ethics [Part III]

11. LOCKE: A Letter Concerning Toleration

12. ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on Political Economy

13. ADAM SMITH: The Wealth of Nations [Book II]

14. BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson

15. MARX: Capital [Prefaces, Part I-II]

16. GOETHE: Faust [Part I]

17. JAMES: Principles of Psychology [Ch. VIII-X]

18 * STERNE: Tristam Shandy *

19** BARTH – The Word of God and the Word of Man [I - IV]

20** BERGSON – An Introduction to Metaphysics

21** HARDY – A Mathematicians Apology

22** KAFKA – The Metamorphosis

NINTH YEAR

1. PLATO: The Sophist

2. THUCYDIDES: The History of the Peloponnesian War [Book VII-VIII]

3. ARISTOTLE: Politics [Book VII-VIII]

4. NEW TESTAMENT [The Gospel According to St. John, The Epistle of Paul the

Apostle to the Romans, The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians]

5. ST. AUGUSTINE: The City of God [Book V, XIX]

6. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part II-II, QQ 1-7]

7. GILBERT: On the Loadstone

8. DESCARTES: Rules for the Direction of the Mind

9. DESCARTES: Geometry

10. PASCAL: The Great Experiment Concerning the Equilibrium of Fluids, On

Geometrical Demonstration

11. MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws [Book I-V, VIII, XI-XII]

12. FARADAY: Experimental Researches in Electricity [Series I-II], A Speculation

Touching Electric Conduction and the Nature of Matter

13. HEGEL: Philosophy of Right [Part III

14. MARX: Capital [Part III-IV]

15. FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents

16 * APOLLONIUS: On Conic Sections [Book I, Prop. 1-15; Book III, Prop. 42-55]

17 * FIELDING: Tom Jones

18 * FOURIER: Analytical Theory of Heat [Preliminary Discourse, Ch. 1-2]

19** MOLIÈRE – Tartuffe

20** AUSTEN – Emma

21** PLANCK – Scientific Autobiography

22** VEBLEN – The Theory of the Leisure Class

23** JOYCE – A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

24** HEMINGWAY – The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber


TENTH YEAR

1. SOPHOCLES: Ajax, Electra

2. PLATO: Timaeus

3. ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals [Book I, Ch. 1—Book II, Ch. 1], On the

Generation of Animals [Book I, Ch. 1, 17-18, 20-23]

4. LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things [Book V-VI]

5. VIRGIL: The Eclogues, The Georgics

6. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I, QQ 65-74]

7. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: Summa Theologica [Part I, QQ 90-102]

8. CHAUCER: Canterbury Tales [Prologue, Knight's Tale, Miller's Prologue and

Tale, Reeve's Prologue and Tale, Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale, Friar's

Prologue and Tale, Summoner's Prologue and Tale, Pardoner's Prologue and Tale]

9. SHAKESPEARE: The Tragedy of King Richard II, The First Part of King Henry

IV, The Second Part of King Henry IV, The Life of King Henry V

10. HARVEY: On the Generation of Animals [Introduction—Exercise 62]

11. CERVANTES: Don Quixote [Part II]

12. KANT: Critique of Judgement [Critique of Teleological Judgement]

13. GOETHE: Faust [Part II]

14. DARWIN: The Descent of Man [Part I; Part III, Ch. 21]

15. MARX: Capital [Part VII-VIII]

16. JAMES: Principles of Psychology [Ch. I, V-VII]

17. FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-analysis

18 * BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson

19** ERASMUS – In Praise of Folly

20** HUIZINGA – The Waning of the Middle Ages [XI – XXIII]

21** EDDINGTON – The Expanding Universe

22** T.S. ELIOT – The Waste Land

Monday, August 24, 2020

The Great Books

 


List of great books (not found in Mortimer Adler's list).

Mortimer Adler's list of Great Books of the Western World

(Best read in chronological order, because you'd have read what the authors were accquented with in their time. Arranged chronological within categories.)

Imaginative Literature

  • HOMER,
    • The Iliad, The Odyssey
  • AESCHYLUS,
    • Complete Plays
  • SOPHOCLES,
    • Complete Plays
  • EURIPIDES,
    • Complete Plays
  • ARISTOPHANES,
  • VIRGIL ,
    • The Eclogues,
    • The Georgics,
    • The Aeneid
  • DANTE ,
    • The Divine Comedy
  • CHAUCER ,
    • Troilus and Criseyde,
    • The Canterbury Tales
  • RABELAIS ,
    • Gargantua and Pantagruel
  • SHAKESPEARE,
    • Complete Plays,
    • Sonnets
  • CERVANTES ,
    • Don Quixote
  • MILTON,
    • English Minor Poems,
    • Paradise Lost,
    • Samson Agonistes,
    • Areopagitica
  • SWIFT ,
    • Gulliver's Travels
  • FIELDING ,
    • Tom Jones
  • STERNE ,
    • Tristram Shandy
  • GOETHE,
    • Faust
  • MELVILLE,
    • Moby Dick
  • TOLSTOY,
    • War and Peace
  • DOSTOEVSKY,
    • The Brothers Karamazov
HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
  • HERODOTUS,
    • The History
  • THUCYDIDES,
    • The History of the Peloponnesian War
  • PLUTARCH,
    • Complete Lives
  • TACITUS,
    • The Annals,
    • The Histories
  • MACHIAVELLI,
    • The Prince
  • MONTAIGNE,
    • Complete Essays
  • HOBBES,
    • Leviathan
  • MONTESQUIEU,
    • The Spirit of Laws
  • ROUSSEAU ,
    • A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality,
    • A Discourse on Political Economy,
    • The Social Contract
  • SMITH ,
    • The Wealth of Nations
  • GIBBON,
    • The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
    • The Declaration of Independence,
    • Articles of Confederation,
    • The Constitution of the United States of America
  • BOSWELL,
    • The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.
  • HAMILTON, MADISON, and JAY,
    • The Federalist
  • MILL ,
    • On Liberty,
    • Representative Government,
    • Utilitarianism
  • MARX,
    • Capital
  • MARX and ENGELS,
NATURAL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
  • HIPPOCRATES,
    • Complete Works
  • EUCLID,
    • Elements
  • ARCHIMEDES,
    • Complete Writings
  • APOLLONIUS OF PERGA,
    • On Conic Sections
  • NICOMACHUS,
    • Introduction to Arithmetic
  • GALEN,
    • On the Natural Faculties
  • PTOLEMY,
    • The Almagest
  • COPERNICUS,
    • On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
  • GILBERT,
    • On the Loadstone
  • GALILEO,
    • Two New Sciences
  • KEPLER ,
    • Epitome of Copernican Astronomy,
    • The Harmonies of the World
  • HARVEY,
    • Medical Writings
  • HUYGENS,
    • Treatise on Light
  • NEWTON,
    • Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, Optics
  • LAVOISIER,
    • Elements of Chemistry
  • FOURIER,
    • Analytical Theory of Heat
  • FARADAY,
    • Experimental Researches in Electricity
  • DARWIN,
    • The Origin of Species,
    • The Descent of Man
  • JAMES,
    • The Principles of Psychology
  • FREUD
    • Major Works
PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY
  • PLATO,
  • ARISTOTLE,
    • Complete Works
  • LUCRETIUS,
    • On the Nature of Things
  • EPICTETUS,
    • The Discourses
  • MARCUS AURELIUS,
    • The Meditations
  • PLOTINUS,
    • The Six Enneads
  • ST . AUGUSTINE ,
    • The Confessions,
    • The City of God,
    • On Christian Doctrine
  • AQUINAS ,
    • Summa Theologica
  • BACON,
    • Advancement of Learning,
    • Novum Organum,
    • New Atlantis
  • DESCARTES,
    • Philosophical Works,
    • The Geometry
  • PASCAL,
    • The Provincial Letters, Pensees,
    • Scientific Works
  • SPINOZA,
    • Ethics
  • LOCK . E,
    • A Letter Concerning Toleration,
    • Concerning Civil Government,
    • An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
  • BERKELEY ,
    • The Principles of Human Knowledge
  • HUME ,
    • An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
  • KANT,
    • Major Philosophical Works
  • HEGEL ,
    • The Philosophy of Right,
    • The Philosophy of History

Sunday, August 23, 2020

How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading (Mortimer J. Adler)

 

I've just finished reading this book today! 
The title of this book is really unpretentious, it has much more than whatever one might think of after reading this "How to Read a Book". It's not only about reading, it's about freeing the mind in a way I have partially experienced exactly by reading books, but Adler's How to Read a Book brings it the a new level, or could I say, to an old forgotten level?
Anyway, I'm thinking of reading the great books of western civilization. It's true that I have already read some of them, but after reading Adler's "rules" I realized I haven't really read them well, meaning I didn't have so clear an understanding as Adler suggests and as a consequence, any critical judgments I have made are dubious or partially valid. Reading for understand has been my goal for years, and now after feeling refreshed with Adler's book, I'll try to read these books more intelligently or more correctly. How fruitful will it be?

Here an outline for further reference.

Types of reading

Reading I: The Analysis of a Book's Structure

  1. Classify the book: what kind of book is this?
  2. State what the whole book (unity) is about with few words or sentences.
  3. Enumerate its major parts in their order and relation to the unity (whole). Analyze these parts as wholes themselves.
  4. Define the problem or problems (and subproblems) the author is trying to solve.

Reading II: The interpretation of a book's content

  1. Come to terms with the author by interpreting his basic words like he does.
  2. Mark the most important sentences in the book to discover the author's major propositions.
  3. Learn the author's arguments (which belong to the propositions), by finding them in, or constructing them out of, sequences of sentences. 
  4. Determine which of his problems the author solved, and which he failed. Did new problems show up? If one problem was not solved, does the author know it?

Reading III: The Criticism of a Book as Communication of Knowledge

A. General maxims
  1. Complete understanding first, only then you may say "I agree, I disagree, I suspend judgment".
    1. Suspending judgment is also an act of criticism. It is taking the position that something has not been shown. You are saying that you are not convinced or persuaded one way or the other (point out exactly where and why). 
  2. There's no point in winning an argument if you know or suspect you're wrong. Don't regard the judgment as a quarrel, or with inclinatinos to dispute.
  3. Respect the difference between knowledge and opinion by giving reasons for any critical judgment you make.
    • By removing misunderstanding and ignorance, all rational people can agree. 
    • Reason driven animal <---> passion/prejudice driven animal.
    • Propositions without an argument are treated as opinions.
    • If you can't reason disagreements, then you must agree.
B. Specific criteria for points of criticism
  1. Show where the author is uninformed (ex: lack of revelant information).
  2. Show where the author is misinformed.
  3. Show where the author is illogical (ex: non sequitur, inconsistency).
  4. Show where the author's analysis or account is incomplete.

Intrinsic and extrinsic properties

  1. Intrinsic: reading of the book not in light of external elements other than the reader's general understanding.
  2. Extrinsic: reading of a book in light of external elements such as other books, visits to places, historic background of the author or the author's time.

Classification of books

  • Belles-Letters
    • Criticism criteria: beauty
    • Goal: inspire us, deepen our sensitivity to human values by amusing.
    • Types:
      • Lyrics
      • Drama
      • Novels
  • Knowledge
    • Criticism criteria: truth
    • Goal: elevate our understanding by instructing.
    • Types:
      • Practical
        • Presentation of rules
        • Principles which generate rules (great books are here in this category) *
      • Theoretical
        • Historic *
        • Philosophic (rational reasoning over rational premises)
        • Theologic (rational reasoning over faith premises)
        • Scientific
        • Mathematics
* Extrinsic information about author and author's time is important.

"Translatability"

Extremes of the spectrum would be lyric poems on one side and mathematical books on the other side. Math propositions can be stated in a countless number of ways. Poem verses are trully untranslatable.